New research reveals psychological ‘booster shots’ can strengthen resistance to misinformation over time

A new study has found that targeted psychological interventions can significantly enhance long-term resistance to misinformation. Dubbed “psychological booster shots,” these interventions improve memory retention and help individuals recognize and resist misleading information more effectively over time.

The study, published in Nature Communications, explores how different approaches, including text-based messages, videos, and online games, can inoculate people against misinformation. The researchers from the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Bristol, Potsdam and King’s College London conducted five large-scale experiments with over 11,000 participants to examine the durability of these interventions and identify ways to strengthen their effects.

The research team tested three types of misinformation-prevention methods:

• Text-based interventions, where participants read pre-emptive messages explaining common misinformation tactics.
• Video-based interventions, short educational clips that expose the emotional manipulation techniques used in misleading content.
• Gamified interventions, an interactive game that teaches people to spot misinformation tactics by having them create their own (fictional) fake news stories in a safe, controlled environment.

Participants were then exposed to misinformation and evaluated on their ability to detect and resist it over time. The study found that while all three interventions were effective, their effects diminished quickly over time, prompting questions about their long-term impact. However, providing memory-enhancing “booster” interventions, such as a follow-up reminder or reinforcement message, helped maintain misinformation resistance for a significantly longer period.

The study found that the longevity of misinformation resistance was primarily driven by how well participants remembered the original intervention. Follow-up reminders or memory-enhancing exercises were also found to significantly extend the effectiveness of the initial intervention, much like medical booster vaccines.

By contrast, the researchers found that boosters that did not focus on memory, but rather focused on increasing participants’ motivation to defend themselves by reminding people of the looming threat of misinformation, did not have any measurable benefits for the longevity of the effects.

Lead researcher Dr. Rakoen Maertens from the University of Oxford’s Department of Experimental Psychology, said: “Misinformation is a persistent global challenge, influencing everything from climate change debates to vaccine hesitancy. Our research shows that just as medical booster shots enhance immunity, psychological booster shots can strengthen people’s resistance to misinformation over time. By integrating memory-boosting techniques into public education and digital literacy programs, we can help people retain these critical skills for much longer.”

Professor Stephan Lewandowsky, Chair in Cognitive Psychology at the University of Bristol and a co-author of the study, emphasised the generality of the findings. He said: “It is important that the effects of the inoculation interventions were nearly the same for videos, games, and text-based material. This makes it much easier to roll out inoculation at scale and in a broad range of contexts to boost people’s skills in recognizing when they are being misled.”

The study highlights the urgent need for scalable and more durable misinformation interventions and highlights the importance of collaboration between researchers, policymakers, and social media platforms to integrate these insights into public information campaigns.

ENDS

Notes to editors

The study ‘Psychological Booster Shots Targeting Memory Increase Long-Term Resistance Against Misinformation’ will be published in Nature Communications at 10:00 GMT / 06:00 ET Tuesday 11 March 2025. It will be available online when the embargo lifts at DOI https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-57205-x  

To view a copy of the paper before this under embargo, contact rakoen.maertens@psy.ox.ac.uk

For further information or interviews with the researchers, please contact:
Chris McIntyre
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University of Oxford 
tel (direct): 01865 270 046
tel (News Office): 01865 280528
Christopher.mcintyre@admin.ox.ac.uk

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