Route of avermectin exposure in stingless bee colonies (IMAGE)
Caption
Potential route of avermectin exposure in stingless bee colonies located in livestock dominated landscapes. When ivermectin is applied to cattle to treat endo and ectoparasites, residues end up in the urine and feces, which flowering plants can absorb. Inside the plant, ivermectin can biotransform into abamectin through desaturase enzymes and contaminate the pollen. Bees forage contaminated pollen that is transported to their colonies.
Credit
Obregon et al
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